Academic Writing: Writing an academic essay

1. The topic sentence usually comes at the beginning of a paragraph. It is generally the first sentence in a formal academic paragraph. Not only is a topic sentence the first sentence of a paragraph, but, more importantly, it is the most general or all-purpose sentence in a paragraph. What does the term ‘most general or all-purpose’ mean? It means that there are not many details in the sentence, but the sentence introduces an overall idea that you want to discuss later in the paragraph. Remember that the opening sentence establishes your style and sets the tone of your essay. It should be direct, brief and punchy. Brevity is the soul of wit. If your opening sentence is short and interesting, it will pull your reader right into your experience or the idea you are presenting.

2. Since the topic sentence is both general and all-purpose, details should appear later it the paragraph. The second and third sentences are called supporting sentences as they support or explain the idea expressed in the topic sentence. Of course, paragraphs in English often have more than two supporting ideas. On an average you should have at least five or seven sentences in your paragraph.

3. In formal paragraphs you may come across a sentence at the end of a paragraph which summarizes the information that has been presented earlier. This is the concluding sentence. You may like to think of a concluding sentence as a sort of topic sentence in reverse. Therefore a topic sentence may either come in the beginning or at the end of the paragraph. In some cases it might also come in the middle to give you an idea of what happened before and after.

4. A common image used for teaching paragraphs to students is called the hamburger. Consider a hamburger that you can buy at a fast-food restaurant. A hamburger has a top bun (a kind of bread), meat, cheese, lettuce, other ingredients in the middle of the hamburger and a bottom bun. If you examine the hamburger carefully you would notice that the top bun and the bottom bun are very similar. In a way, the top bun is like your topic sentence and the bottom bun like your concluding sentence. Both buns ‘hold’ the meat, onions and other ingredients. Similarly the topic sentence and concluding sentences ‘hold’ the supporting sentences in the paragraph.

5. Whenever possible, you should include enough details in your paragraphs to help your reader understand exactly what you are writing about. Why are details important? Consider the example of the hamburger mentioned above. If the hamburger buns are the topic and concluding sentences, then the meat, the cheese, the lettuce and the sauce are the supporting details. Without the food between the hamburger buns your hamburger would not be delicious! Similarly without the supporting details, your paragraph would not be interesting. To further make your paragraph interesting vary the length of your sentences.

6. In addition to having a particular type of structure, academic paragraphs are different from ‘ordinary writing, such as letter writing, in that certain kinds of expressions are not commonly used. For example in formal essays, you should not use contractions such as don't or aren't. Instead you should write out the words in full for example do not and are not.

7. Also in formal essays you should avoid the first and second person. That is, do not use the pronouns I or you unless you are writing an autobiography. The pronouns we and us are sometimes used in formal essays in some major fields but in general you should not use these unless you are certain that they are customary in your field and/or your professor allows them. It is safer simply to use the third person and write in the active voice.

8. While sentences provide the meat of a paragraph, there are three concepts in paragraph writing that may be considered the sauce. These ideas provide the conceptual framework that holds all paragraphs together:
A. Unity: it means that you fully explain or prove one key idea or subject in a paragraph.
B. Coherence: it implies that you repeat one key idea from sentence to sentence until it reaches its full development in the conclusion.
C. Development: it means that you adequately explain, illustrate, and provide details or proof for each point in the paragraph.

If you take one key idea and state it clearly, then follow it up with a sentence for each detail or piece of evidence, and finally restate your idea, then you can write acceptable, clear paragraphs. Always check spellings and grammar before submitting your essay.

Here are some resources on the web to help you with paragraph writing:
The 5-paragraph essay at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_paragraph_essay
Paragraph writing at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/606/01/).
Video at http://www.ehow.co.uk/video_4987170_write-5paragraph-essay.html

Plato’s Republic

Though Plato was of noble birth and intellectually superior to most of his contemporaries he opted out of politics due to the injustices of a tyrannical oligarchy and the unjust execution of his mentor Socrates by the Athenian jury. After the Peloponnesian wars two powerful groups, The Four Hundred and Thirty seized control of the government turning Athens into a brutal oligarchy. Plato’s eccentric teacher Socrates was seen as a threat to the status quo and was falsely accused by a 500 strong Athenian jury of inventing new deities and not recognizing the state gods. Plato decided not to be a part of this corrupt political system but to continue the good work of his mentor. He founded an Academy in 387 BC, the first modern university in the west. Here students learned all sorts of things ranging from politics and law to medicine and philosophy. It was not an ivory tower institution but prepared students to enter different professions by teaching subjects relevant to life and society. The Academy lasted for 912 years.

Plato’s Republic does not pontificate, preach or poeticize but philosophize. It pays special attention to reason, order and the association of thought. A philosopher has not only thought about different subjects deeply but also attempts to explain the connections and possibilities. All philosophy begins with being critical and often arrives at conclusions which are quite surprising, what we often call reasoned truth. Unlike the social sciences, philosophy does not have a fixed subject; it deals with all forms of human knowledge. It encompasses ideas connected to morality, truth and being and much more. Often there are no fixed terminologies to guide our understanding. We should therefore follow inquires of a philosopher before we can understand his logic. Often understanding the logic of philosophers might be difficult as they express complex ideas in a convoluted manner. But when philosophy is simple such as Plato’s or other Greek philosophers it seems hard to understand.

The Republic begins with moral philosophy by asking the fundamental question of Greek society: What is justice? Justice was one of the overarching Greek values and fundamentally connected to the cultivation of virtues. Plato was interrogation the question of how to live well which was central to human nature, to the human soul. Once we could answer this question the best form of human life is possible. How should we define justice? How should it administered? How should it be realized in a given state? Plato therefore moves from a definition of justice, to just action and then laying it down as an ideal state policy, a model for existing societies of his times and the ones yet to come. Plato realized that the best form of human life was only possible in some sort of an organized community. The civic community was closely connected to Plato’s idea of the best order of human society. In The Republic Plato provides an ideal picture of the human soul. To the Greeks there was no separation between ethical and political functions in society. Similarly for an individual the ethical and political spheres were knit together into a single entity. There was no difference between the laws, custom and religion of a given society. To understand one was to understand all.

Plato often criticizes the prevailing social institutions and practices. He challenges opinions and questions rhetoric which is false. The Republic is not just philosophy but also a book about social and political reform. Often this leads to prejudice and differs in approach from Aristotle’s works.

Plato’s speculations are dialogical in nature following the tradition of Socrates which had to do with the prevailing literary climate of the time. Greek literature was more concrete, objective and impersonal than modern literature. Greek drama was less subjective. Take the example of Thucydides whose history lacks personal details and reflection. Often fictitious speeches are given to real characters thereby compensating for general reflection. The Greeks had not yet separated the exposition of ideas from the representation of characters as we have done. Plato used known persons to present philosophical ideas and opinions, something they did posses in actual life. Though such characters possess propriety and vivacity, they lack historical truth a feature of our times. Aristophanes also does not conform to historical truth. When we come to modern philosophers such as Berkeley we find that they use characters as character in philosophy rather than as real characters. Bunyan is the best example of the Platonic presentation of ideas. The Protagoras can be seen as a great philosophical drama and Euthydemus a philosophical burlesque. Most of Plato’s works, except the Laws and the Timeaus, possess a dramatic quality which is eschewed in modern philosophical exposition. If we see the Republic we discover that the dramatic quality of the book diminishes as it progresses but Plato often revives it

In the ten books of The Republic Plato demonstrates the superiority of living a just life in a moral world where the just are rewarded and the unjust punished not only in this but also in the next. The myth of Er in the 10th book takes us beyond into an afterlife through the return of the warrior Er who details his adventures in an absolute world.

Speaking Without Alibi

We live in a world of alibis,
Of having been elsewhere,
Of retreating in the shadows,
Of dragging our feet.

But to speak out compellingly,
To produce some effect,
Is to provoke the other and
Confront ourselves without excuses.


by Mukesh Williams

Making a Classroom Presentation

From time to time all of us are asked to make presentations about our research and what we know about our subject. This may look quite natural but it requires some skill. The best way perhaps to approach a presentation is to tell your audience clearly what you want to let them know. Then repeat it one more time in the end by way of summarizing it.

1. Clarity
It is always better to tell your audience clearly and in a systematic manner. The best way to do this is to give them a brief outline of the key points, then deal with each point in depth. As you come to the conclusion summarize your arguments in a few short sentences.

2. Say it Through Pictures
There is an old saying that a picture is worth a thousand words. The visual effect is sometimes more powerful than mere words. So use photos, graphics and sketches.

3. Talk to the Audience
Never read the slides or your notes. Remember what you want to say and say it naturally. This would keep the interest of the audience alive.

4. Natural Pace of Presentation
Be easy and slow so the information sinks in, but not too slow lest the audience get bored. Finish you r presentation a few minutes before time so you allow the audience to ask you questions. Sometimes it is better to engage the audience by asking them to respond to your answers.

5. Slide Text
Do not use too much text in your slide. Remember the text accompanies your oral statements. Try using simple and short sentences. Do not use too many bullets; at most three or four in a given slide. If you are making a 10- minutes presentation you may use 7 or 8 slides maximum. Remember you can spend about a minute on one slide. Also use contrasting colors for text and background.

Some General Terms Used in Technical Research

Technical Research

The term technical research usually refers to applied research in the engineering disciplines and attempts to develop tools and procedures to measure or test equipment. Technical research also provides solutions to technical problems.

Technical Report
A technical report is a document which objectively records the procedures adopted and results obtained after a scientific or technical investigation (experiment) has been completed.

Technical Proposal
A technical proposal states clearly the requirements of a project or a contract, the plan of its completion in stages, and the approach taken.

Technical Standard
There is a technical standard set for technical research which involves a formal and concise statement of specifications and scientific observation of results.

Technical Specifications
Technical specifications involve a precise statement of the needs to be addressed or essential requirements of an instrument (materials, methods and process used; service, system and work required). The specifications are usually written in a scientific and precise manner for all parties to understand and evaluate. Specifications are usually divided into two categories:
1) Performance specifications such as conformance to a specified range such as range of room temperature
2) Technical specifications which clarifies the level of performance of each unit. This is further subdivided into: a) unit boundaries, parameters and tolerance (level of departure from its nominal value); b) quality level of each unit; c) acceptable statistical distribution ( mean deviation and standard deviation).